Synthesis Protocols for Solar Cell Materials from Laboratory Fabrication to Scalable Manufacturing

Authors

• Ayad Abbood Abdulhasan, Department of Metallurgy Engineering, Al-Mustafa University, Baghdad, Iraq AND Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Selangor, MalaysiaFollow
• A. M. Mustafa, College of Production Engineering and Metallurgy, University of technology, Baghdad, 10001, IraqFollow
• Mohanad Muzahem Khalaf, School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia AND Department of Materials Engineering, Technical Engineering College, Middle TechnicalFollow

Abstract

Photovoltaic (PV) technology has evolved over seven decades from single-crystal silicon cells with modest efficiencies to a diverse portfolio of silicon, thin-film, and emerging solar-cell architectures approaching or exceeding thermodynamic single-junction limits when combined in tandem configurations. Device efficiency and long-term operational stability are governed not only by the choice of absorber material but, critically, by the synthesis protocol used to fabricate it the crystal-growth method, deposition technique, solvent system, thermal budget, and interface-engineering strategy all leave a lasting imprint on morphology, defect density, and carrier transport. This review provides a comprehensive, protocol-centered survey of solar-cell synthesis across three technology generations: silicon wafer-based cells, thin-film cells (CdTe, CIGS, amorphous silicon), and emerging solution- and vapor-processed cells (perovskite, organic, dye-sensitized, and quantum-dot). We further examine the processing parameters materials and precursor engineering, thermal and environmental control, and interface/surface engineering that link synthesis to structure and, ultimately, to performance. A dedicated discussion of scale-up addresses roll-to-roll and slot-die manufacturing, stability and reproducibility, environmental and toxicity considerations, and the emerging role of artificial intelligence and automation in synthesis optimization. Compared with prior single-technology reviews, this work integrates the full synthesis landscape within one processing–structure–performance framework and closes with a forward-looking roadmap for translating laboratory protocols into industrially viable manufacturing lines.

Recommended Citation

Abdulhasan, Ayad Abbood; Mustafa, A. M.; and Khalaf, Mohanad Muzahem (2026) "Synthesis Protocols for Solar Cell Materials from Laboratory Fabrication to Scalable Manufacturing," AUIQ Technical Engineering Science: Vol. 3: Iss. 3, Article 3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.70645/3078-3437.1074