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Abstract

The global shift to sustainable energy has heightened the demand for smart, robust, and efficient monitoring systems. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) play a key role by enabling real-time data collection, decentralized control, and flexible communication in renewable energy applications. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of WSN architectures, routing protocols, and deployment strategies tailored to photovoltaic (PV) arrays, wind energy systems, hydroelectric plants, and smart microgrids. Core operational challenges are examined through a critical evaluation of energy-aware routing protocols including LEACH, PEGASIS, TEEN, ZRP, and advanced variants like EE-OLEACH and PT-Hybrid. Real-world applications, such as offshore wind farms, rooftop PV installations, and smart grid in underserved regions, underscore the practical value of WSN-based monitoring. Emerging solutions such as AI-enhanced clustering, blockchain-secured data integrity, and federated learning for decentralized intelligence demonstrate the convergence of WSNs with next-generation technologies. Additionally, the integration of edge computing and future 6G frameworks is explored for ultra-reliable, low-latency communication. However, gaps remain in technological readiness, large-scale deployment validation, and the need for cross-layer protocol optimization. The review concludes that while WSNs are already central to modern renewable energy systems, ongoing innovations in energy harvesting, secure networking, and intelligent analytics will further elevate their role in creating autonomous, self-healing, and high-performance energy infrastructure.

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